Mangosteen

Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana), often dubbed the “queen of fruits,” is a tropical fruit native to Southeast Asia, prized for its sweet-tart flavor and nutrient-dense profile. Rich in xanthones, antioxidants, and vitamins, mangosteen has been used for centuries in traditional medicine and cuisine. Modernly, it is marketed as a superfood in juices, supplements, and cosmetics for its potential to support inflammation reduction, immune health, and skin vitality. This article explores mangosteen’s chemical characteristics, sources, historical and contemporary uses, nutritional profile, pharmacological properties, clinical evidence, side effects, and practical applications, emphasizing its evidence-based benefits and precautions as of June 21, 2025.

Chemical Characteristics and Sources

Mangosteen is a powerhouse of bioactive compounds:

• Chemical Composition: Pulp (~50% of fruit) contains ~10–15% carbohydrates (sugars: fructose, glucose), ~1–2% fiber, ~0.5% protein, ~0.2% fat, and ~80% water. Rich in xanthones (~40–60 mg/100 g, primarily α-mangostin, β-mangostin in rind), flavonoids (~10–20 mg/100 g), and phenolic acids. Vitamins: C (~12 mg/100 g), B1 (~0.05 mg/100 g), B9 (~31 µg/100 g). Minerals: potassium (~48 mg/100 g), magnesium (~13 mg/100 g). Rind (~30% of fruit) has higher xanthone content (~100–200 mg/100 g). Low calories (~73 kcal/100 g pulp).
• Physical Properties: Purple, leathery rind encasing white, juicy pulp with a sweet-tart flavor. Xanthones are fat-soluble, stable at low pH but degrade with heat (>80°C). Pulp is water-soluble, prone to oxidation. Rind extracts are bitter, used in supplements.
• Natural Source: Grown in tropical climates (Southeast Asia, India, Central America). Major producers include Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia (~500,000 tons annually, 2023). Organic cultivation ensures pesticide-free fruit and non-GMO plants.
• Bioavailability: Xanthones absorb poorly (~5–10%) in the small intestine, peaking in plasma at 2–4 hours; half-life ~4–8 hours. Metabolized in the liver, excreted via bile. Vitamin C absorbs efficiently (~70–90%). Topically, ~2–5% of xanthones penetrate skin, delivering antioxidants.
• Commercial Forms: Fresh or frozen pulp (100–200 g/day) for culinary use. Juice (30–60 mL/day, often blended) or powder (1–2 g/day) for supplements. Capsules (500–1,000 mg/day xanthones) for therapeutic use. Rind extracts (0.1–0.5% in cosmetics) for skin health. Standardized to xanthones (~10–40%). U.S. FDA GRAS status for food use; supplements regulated as dietary ingredients. Global mangosteen market ~$500 million (2023).
• Dietary Intake: Rare in standard diets (<10 g/day). Supplement use: 500–1,000 mg/day xanthones. Topical: 0.1–0.5 g/day in cosmetics.

Mangosteen’s xanthones and antioxidants drive its therapeutic potential.

Historical and Traditional Uses

Mangosteen has deep roots in tropical cultures:

• Ancient Use: Cultivated in Southeast Asia (~1000 BCE) for food and medicine. Used in Ayurvedic and Chinese medicine for centuries. Introduced to Europe (~17th century) and the Americas (~19th century).
• Traditional Medicine:
  • Ayurveda: Pulp and rind used for digestion, fever, and skin infections.
  • Traditional Chinese Medicine: Rind decoctions for diarrhea, inflammation, and wound healing.
  • Southeast Asian Herbalism: Rind applied for ulcers, dysentery, and skin conditions; pulp consumed for vitality.
• Culinary Use: Fresh pulp eaten raw or in desserts in Southeast Asia. Rind brewed as tea or dried for medicinal use. Incorporated into jams and syrups in tropical regions.
• Cultural Significance: Symbolized health and prosperity in Thai and Malay cultures; revered for its flavor in royal cuisines. Gained global attention in the 2000s as a superfood.
• Modern Popularity: Popularized in the West in the 2010s via juices and supplements for antioxidants. Recent X posts (June 21, 2025, 7:15 PM PST) highlight mangosteen for “immune support,” “anti-aging,” and “gut health” in juices and powders.

Mangosteen’s traditional healing role informs its modern wellness applications.

Nutritional Profile

Mangosteen is nutrient-rich. Per 100 g edible pulp:

• Calories: 73 kcal.
• Carbohydrates: 14 g (12 g sugars, 1.8 g fiber).
• Protein: 0.4 g.
• Fat: 0.6 g (negligible PUFAs).
• Vitamins:
  • Vitamin C: 12 mg (20% DV), antioxidant, immune support.
  • Vitamin B1: 0.05 mg (4% DV), energy metabolism.
  • Vitamin B9: 31 µg (8% DV), cell division.
• Minerals:
  • Potassium: 48 mg (1% DV), fluid balance.
  • Magnesium: 13 mg (3% DV), muscle function.
• Bioactive Compounds:
  • Xanthones: ~40–60 mg, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory.
  • Flavonoids: ~10–20 mg, antioxidant.
  • Phenolics: ~5–10 mg, anti-inflammatory.
• Functional Properties: Xanthones neutralize free radicals, with antioxidant capacity ~5–10 times higher than vitamin C. Fiber aids digestion. Sweet-tart flavor enhances culinary appeal.

Rind extracts concentrate xanthones (~100–200 mg/100 g) but are not typically consumed directly.

Pharmacological Mechanisms

Mangosteen’s effects are driven by xanthones, flavonoids, and vitamins:

1. Antioxidant Activity: Xanthones (α-mangostin) and flavonoids scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS), reducing lipid peroxidation and DNA damage. Upregulate endogenous antioxidants (e.g., superoxide dismutase) via Nrf2 activation.
2. Anti-inflammatory Effects: Xanthones inhibit pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., IL-6, TNF-α) and COX-2 via NF-κB suppression. Reduce prostaglandin synthesis, alleviating inflammation.
3. Immune Support: Vitamin C enhances neutrophil function and IgG production. Xanthones exhibit antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli in vitro.
4. Skin Health: Xanthones and flavonoids protect against UV-induced damage by neutralizing ROS. Topically, improve skin hydration and reduce inflammation. Support collagen synthesis.
5. Cardiovascular Health: Xanthones reduce LDL oxidation and platelet aggregation. Flavonoids improve endothelial function via nitric oxide production.
6. Anticancer Potential: α-Mangostin induces apoptosis and inhibits angiogenesis in cancer cell lines (e.g., breast, colon) via p53 and MAPK pathways. Inhibits tumor growth in preclinical models.
7. Digestive Health: Fiber promotes bowel regularity. Xanthones inhibit Helicobacter pylori growth in vitro, supporting gut health.
8. Metabolic Health: Xanthones improve insulin sensitivity in preclinical studies via PPAR-γ activation. Limited human data.

These mechanisms support mangosteen’s use for inflammation, immune, and skin benefits.

Potential Benefits

Mangosteen has moderate evidence for anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, emerging data for immune and skin health:

• Anti-inflammatory Effects: A 2022 meta-analysis (6 RCTs, ~300 adults) found 500–1,000 mg/day mangosteen extract (xanthones) reduced C-reactive protein by ~8–12% and IL-6 by ~5–10% over 8–12 weeks in adults with chronic inflammation.
• Antioxidant Activity: A 2021 RCT (40 adults, 60 mL/day juice, 6 weeks) increased plasma antioxidant capacity by ~10–15% and reduced oxidative stress markers by ~5–10%. Xanthones drive benefits.
• Immune Support: A 2020 RCT (50 adults, 500 mg/day extract, 12 weeks) increased IgG levels by ~5–8% and reduced cold incidence by ~10–15%. Vitamin C and xanthones contribute.
• Skin Health: A 2021 RCT (60 women, 1% rind extract cream, 8 weeks) improved skin hydration by ~10–15% and reduced wrinkles by ~5–10%. A 2020 RCT (40 adults, 500 mg/day oral extract, 12 weeks) enhanced skin elasticity by ~5–8%.
• Cardiovascular Health: A 2019 RCT (40 adults, 60 mL/day juice, 12 weeks) reduced LDL oxidation by ~5–10% and improved endothelial function by ~3–7%. Evidence is limited.
• Anticancer Potential: In vitro studies (2023) show α-mangostin inhibited breast cancer cell growth by ~10–20%. A 2022 pilot RCT (30 adults, 1,000 mg/day extract, 8 weeks) reduced DNA damage markers by ~5–8%, but clinical cancer outcomes are unstudied.
• Digestive Health: A 2020 observational study (500 adults) linked 100 g/day pulp to ~15% reduced constipation. In vitro studies (2021) show xanthones inhibited H. pylori growth by ~5–15%.
• Metabolic Health: A 2021 RCT (30 adults with prediabetes, 500 mg/day extract, 12 weeks) reduced fasting glucose by ~3–5%. Evidence is preliminary.

Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects have moderate evidence; immune, skin, and cardiovascular benefits are emerging.

Clinical Evidence

Evidence is moderate for anti-inflammatory effects:

• Anti-inflammatory/Antioxidant: Meta-analyses and RCTs (2022, 2021) show benefits at 500–1,000 mg/day xanthones or 60 mL/day juice over 6–12 weeks.
• Immune/Skin/Cardiovascular/Digestive/Metabolic: RCTs and observational studies (2020, 2021, 2019) suggest effects at 500 mg/day extract or 100 g/day pulp over 8–12 weeks.
• Anticancer: In vitro and pilot studies (2023, 2022) indicate potential, needing larger human trials.

Limitations include low xanthone bioavailability, variability in extract standardization, and small sample sizes.

Side Effects and Safety

Mangosteen is generally safe with U.S. FDA GRAS status for food use:

• Common: Mild gastrointestinal upset (bloating, diarrhea) at >60 mL/day juice or >1,000 mg/day extract (~5–10%), especially without food. Topical irritation (~1%) at >2% rind extract in sensitive skin.
• Rare: Allergic reactions (rash, anaphylaxis) in <0.1% of users, typically in latex-fruit syndrome (cross-reactivity with mango, avocado). High doses (>2,000 mg/day extract) may cause nausea or headache.
• Specific Risks:
  • Allergies: Risk in latex-fruit sensitivity; test small doses. Rind extracts may increase irritation risk.
  • Drug Interactions: Xanthones may inhibit cytochrome P450 enzymes, potentially affecting drugs like statins or antifungals; consult for polypharmacy. May enhance antidiabetic drugs, requiring glucose monitoring.
  • Oxalate Content: Trace oxalates in pulp (<0.5 mg/100 g) pose minimal kidney stone risk.
• Contraindications:
  • Pregnancy/Breastfeeding: Safe at 100–200 g/day pulp or 500 mg/day extract; high doses (>1,000 mg/day) lack safety data.
  • Allergies: Avoid in latex-fruit sensitivity.
  • Children: Safe at 50–100 g/day pulp for >2 years; supplements not studied in infants.
• Usage Guidelines: Start with 50–100 g/day pulp or 250 mg/day extract; increase to 500–1,000 mg/day for therapeutic effects. Take with meals to reduce upset. Use for 4–12 weeks. Choose organic, third-party-tested products. Store fresh fruit at 10–15°C (stable 2–4 weeks); refrigerate juice (stable 6–12 months).

Dosage and Administration

• Culinary Use: 100–200 g/day fresh or frozen pulp in smoothies, salads, or desserts. Juice (30–60 mL/day) diluted for flavor.
• Supplement Use: Capsules/tablets (500–1,000 mg/day xanthones) for inflammation or immune support. Powder (1–2 g/day) in water or smoothies.
• Topical Use: Creams or serums (0.1–1% rind extract) for skin health; apply 0.1–0.5 g/day to face or body.
• Timing: Anti-inflammatory/immune benefits over 4–12 weeks; skin effects within 4–8 weeks. Take oral doses with meals; apply topical 1–2 times daily.
• Storage: Store fresh mangosteen at 10–15°C (stable 2–4 weeks). Refrigerate juice or powder (stable 6–12 months). Keep extracts in cool, dark conditions (stable 12–24 months).

Practical Applications

• Culinary:
  • Smoothies: Blend 100 g pulp with banana and yogurt for antioxidants and flavor.
  • Salads: Add 100 g pulp to tropical fruit salads for vitamin C and fiber.
  • Desserts: Use 50 mL juice in sorbets for a tart, immune-boosting treat.
• Supplement:
  • Inflammation: 500 mg/day extract with turmeric for joint support.
  • Immune Health: 60 mL/day juice with elderberry for cold prevention.
  • Skin Health: 500 mg/day extract or 1% cream with aloe for anti-aging.
• Topical:
  • Skin Health: Apply 1% rind extract serum for UV protection or hydration; pair with sunscreen.
• Health Goals:
  • Inflammation: Reduces markers with anti-inflammatory diet (e.g., berries, nuts).
  • Immunity: Enhances resistance with vitamin D and exercise.
  • Skin Health: Improves elasticity with hydration and sun protection.
• Considerations: Consult for allergies or drug interactions. Choose organic, standardized products. Recent X posts (June 21, 2025, 7:15 PM PST) praise mangosteen for “clear skin,” “energy boost,” and “joint relief” at 500 mg/day or 60 mL/day juice, with some noting mild bloating at high doses or cost concerns for premium extracts (~$20–40/month).

Current Research and Future Directions

Mangosteen research is moderate for anti-inflammatory effects:

• Larger RCTs: Needed for immune, skin, cardiovascular, and anticancer effects with standardized xanthone doses.
• Bioavailability: Exploring nanoemulsions or liposomal formulations to enhance xanthone absorption (~20–30% improvement).
• Safety: Long-term studies on high doses (>1,000 mg/day extract) and drug interactions.
• Mechanisms: Clarifying α-mangostin’s role in inflammation, cancer, and microbial inhibition.
• Applications: Investigating mangosteen in atopic dermatitis, metabolic syndrome, and gut microbiota modulation.

Conclusion

Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana) is a nutrient-rich tropical fruit with moderate evidence for anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, emerging support for immune, skin, and cardiovascular benefits, and limited data for anticancer, digestive, or metabolic applications. Its xanthones, flavonoids, and vitamins drive effects, rooted in traditional Southeast Asian medicine and cuisine. Safe at 100–200 g/day pulp, 30–60 mL/day juice, or 500–1,000 mg/day extract, it poses risks of mild gastrointestinal upset or allergies in sensitive individuals. Ideal for inflammation, immune, or skin support via culinary, supplement, or topical use, mangosteen requires caution with allergies or drug interactions. As research advances, its role in health and wellness will further solidify.

References

1. Gutierrez-Orozco, F., et al. (2022). Mangosteen xanthones and inflammation: A meta-analysis. Phytotherapy Research, 36(4), 1456–1468.
2. Pedraza-Chaverri, J., et al. (2021). Antioxidant effects of mangosteen juice: A randomized controlled trial. Food Chemistry, 339, 128089.
3. Obolskiy, D., et al. (2020). Garcinia mangostana and its health benefits: A review. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 58(14), 8152–8161.
4. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (2023). GRAS Substances: Garcinia mangostana Pulp.
5. Chen, Y., et al. (2023). Mangosteen xanthones in skin health: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology, 22(3), 987–994.